Such responses indicate that a new citizenship question, which is facing a legal challenge that has reached the U.S. Supreme Court, could affect Muslim immigrant participation, said William Frey, the demographer at the Brookings Institution who wrote a 2018 report on census participation issues.“In light of the current administration’s significant pushback against immigrants, especially Muslims and other people of color, the census could become a divisive, politically charged exercise,” Frey wrote in the report, adding that an undercount of such people would “undermine the very democracy [the census] was intended to uphold.”

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